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Both trends are shown in two-year increments. To make sense of this chart, you need to read the title, the y-axis labels, and the labels and their definitions carefully.

Research Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. We search the web for information about a new computer, ask friends about the best place to get coffee, try on several pairs of jeans before deciding which ones to buy. Will you need to provide background information? What kinds of evidence will your audience find persuasive? What attitudes do they hold, and how can you best appeal to them? If so, which media will best reach your audience, and how will they affect the kind of information you search for?

Is there a due date? How much time will your project take, and how can you best schedule your time in order to complete it? If the assignment offers only broad guidelines, identify the requirements and range of possibilities, and define your topic within those constraints. As you consider topics, look to narrow your focus to be specific enough to cover in a research paper.

Reference librarians can direct you to the most appropriate reference works, and library catalogs and databases provide sources that have been selected by experts. General encyclopedias and other reference works can provide an overview of your topic, while more specialized encyclopedias cover subjects in greater depth and provide other scholarly references for further research.

Some databases include documentation entries in several styles that you can simply copy and paste. Generate a list of questions beginning with What? Who should determine when and where fracking can be done? Should fracking be expanded? Select one question, and use it to help guide your research. Drafting a tentative thesis. Here are three tentative thesis statements, each one based on a previous research question about fracking: By injecting sand, water, and chemicals into rock, fracking may pollute drinking water and air.

The federal government should strictly regulate the production of natural gas by fracking. Fracking can greatly increase our supplies of natural gas, but other methods of producing energy should still be pursued. A tentative thesis will help guide your research, but you should be ready to revise it as you continue to learn about your subject and consider many points of view.

Which sources you turn to will depend on your topic. For a report on career opportunities in psychology, you might interview someone working in the field. Primary sources are original works, such as historical documents, literary works, eyewitness accounts, diaries, letters, and lab studies, as well as your own original field research. Secondary sources include scholarly books and articles, reviews, biographies, and other works that interpret or discuss primary sources.

Whether a source is considered primary or secondary sometimes depends on your topic and purpose. Scholarly and popular sources. Popular sources, on the other hand, are written for a general audience, and while they may discuss scholarly research, they are more likely to summarize that research than to report on it in detail.

Catchy, provocative titles usually signal that a source is popular, not scholarly. Scholarly sources are written by authors with academic credentials; popular sources are most often written by journalists or staff writers. Includes an abstract. Multiple authors who are academics. Author not an academic.

Consider how much prior knowledge readers are assumed to have. Are specialized terms defined, and are the people cited identified in some way? Look as well at the detail: scholarly sources describe methods and give more detail, often in the form of numerical data; popular sources give less detail, often in the form of anecdotes.

Scholarly sources are published by academic journals, university presses, and professional organizations such as the Modern Language Association; popular sources are published by general interest magazines such as Time or Fortune or trade publishers such as Norton or Penguin.

Scholarly journal articles often begin with an abstract or summary of the article; popular magazine articles may include a tag line giving some sense of what the article covers, but less than a formal summary. Scholarly sources have URLs that end in. Keep in mind that searching requires flexibility, both in the words you use and in the methods you try. For some topics, you might find specialized reference works such as the Film Encyclopedia or Dictionary of Philosophy, which provide in-depth information on a single field or topic and can often lead you to more specific sources.

Many reference works are also online, but some may be available only in the library. Wikipedia can often serve as a starting point for preliminary research and includes links to other sources, but since its information can be written and rewritten by anyone, make sure to consult other reference works as well.

You can find bibliographies in many scholarly articles and books. Check with a reference librarian for help finding bibliographies on your research topic. You can search the catalog by author, title, subject, or keyword. Many books in the catalog are also available online, and some may be downloaded to a computer or mobile device.

Indexes list articles by topics; databases usually provide full texts or abstracts. While some databases and indexes are freely available online, most must be accessed through a library. EBSCOhost provides databases of abstracts and complete articles from periodicals and government documents.

InfoTrac offers full-text articles from scholarly and popular sources, including the New York Times. JSTOR archives many scholarly journals but not current issues. Humanities International Index contains bibliographies for over 2, humanities journals.

MLA International Bibliography indexes scholarly articles on modern languages, literature, folklore, and linguistics. PsycINFO indexes scholarly literature in psychology.

Because it is so vast and dynamic, however, finding information can be a challenge. Google, Bing, Yahoo! Yippy, Dogpile, and SurfWax let you use several search sites simultaneously. They are best for searching broadly; use a single site to obtain the most precise results. For peer-reviewed academic writing in many disciplines, try Google Scholar; or use Scirus for scientific, technical, and medical documents.

Following are a few of the many resources available on the web. You can find information put together by specialists at The Voice of the Shuttle a guide to online resources in the humanities ; the WWW Virtual Library a catalog of websites on numerous subjects, compiled by subject specialists ; or in subject directories such as those provided by Google and Yahoo! News sites. Many newspapers, magazines, and radio and TV stations have websites that provide both up-to-the-minute information and also archives of older news articles.

Through Google News and NewsLink, for example, you can access current news worldwide, and Google News Archive Search has files extending back to the s. Government sites. Many government agencies and departments maintain websites where you can find government reports, statistics, legislative information, and other resources. Audio, video, and image collections. Your library likely subscribes to various databases where you can find and download audio, video, and image files.

AP Images provides access to photographs taken for the Associated Press; Artstor is a digital library of images; Naxos Music Library contains more than 60, recordings. Digital archives. You can find primary sources from the past, including drawings, maps, recordings, speeches, and historic documents at sites maintained by the National Archives, the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, and others. Three kinds of field research that you might consider are interviews, observations, and surveys.

If you wish to record the interview, ask for permission. Some writing projects are based on information you get by observing something. How does this observation relate to your research goals, and what do you expect to find? Also note details about the setting. Then analyze your notes, looking for patterns. What did you learn? Did anything surprise or puzzle you? One way of gathering information from a large number of people is to use a questionnaire.

Multiple-choice questions will be easier to tally than openended questions. Be sure to give a due date and to say thank you. A Google search on the same topic produces over ten thousand hits. How do you decide which ones to read?

This chapter presents advice on evaluating potential sources and reading those you choose critically. What kinds of sources will they find persuasive? How well does it relate to your purpose? What would it add to your work? To see what it covers, look at the title and at any introductory material such as a preface or an abstract.

Has the author written other works on this subject? Is he or she known for a particular position on it? If the credentials are not stated, you might do a search to see what else you can learn about him or her.

Does the source cover various points of view or advocate only one perspective? Does its title suggest a certain slant? If the source is a book, what kind of company published it; if an article, what kind of periodical did it appear in? Books published by university presses and articles in scholarly journals are reviewed by experts before they are published.

But books and articles written for the general public do not undergo rigorous review or fact-checking. Is the site maintained by an organization, an interest group, a government agency, or an individual? Look for clues in the URL:. Can you understand it? Texts written for a general audience might be easier to understand but not authoritative enough for academic work.

Scholarly texts will be more authoritative but may be hard to comprehend. Check to see when books and articles were published and when websites were last updated. If a site lists no date, see if links to other sites still work; if not, the site is probably too dated to use. If so, you can probably assume that some other writers regard it as trustworthy. Is there a bibliography that might lead you to other sources?

How current or authoritative are the sources it cites? Pay attention to what they say, to the reasons and evidence they offer to support what they say, and to whether they address viewpoints other than their own.

Assume that each author is responding to some other argument. Does he or she present several different positions or argue for a particular position? What arguments is he or she responding to? How thoroughly does he or she consider alternative arguments? Does it seem objective, or does the content or language reveal a particular bias?

Are opposing views considered and treated fairly? Does it support a different argument altogether? Does it represent a position you need to address? Is the main purpose to inform readers about a topic or to argue a certain point? This chapter focuses on going beyond what your sources say to inspire and support what you want to say. What makes them so strong? Are there any that you need to address in what you write? Have you discovered new questions you need to investigate? Entering the conversation.

This is the exciting part of a research project, for when you write out your own ideas on the topic, you will find yourself entering that conversation.

This chapter will help you with the specifics of integrating source materials into your writing and acknowledging your sources appropriately. The following examples are shown in MLA style. To quote three lines or less of poetry in MLA style, run them in with your text, enclosed in quotation marks. Separate lines with slashes, leaving one space on each side of the slash. Include the line numbers in parentheses at the end of the quotation. Set off long quotations block style. Longer quotations should not be run in with quotation marks but instead are set off from your text and indented from the left margin.

What better way to get our attention? The solution for most nonprofits has been to show the despair. Indicate any additions or changes with brackets. Paraphrase when the source material is important but the original wording is not. Because it includes all the main points and details of the source material, a paraphrase is usually about the same length as the original.

These results helped explain why bladder cancers had become so prevalent among dyestuffs workers. With the invention of mauve in , synthetic dyes began replacing natural plant-based dyes in the coloring of cloth and leather. After mauve, the first synthetic dye, was invented in , leather and cloth manufacturers replaced most natural dyes made from plants with synthetic dyes, and by the early s textile workers had very high rates of bladder cancer.

The experiments with dogs revealed the connection Now see two examples that demonstrate some of the challenges of paraphrasing. The paraphrase below borrows too much of the original language or changes it only slightly, as the words and phrases highlighted in yellow show. Now-classic experiments in showed that when dogs were exposed to aromatic amines, chemicals used in synthetic dyes derived from coal, they developed bladder cancer.

Similar cancers were prevalent among dyestuffs workers, and these experiments helped to explain why. Mauve, a synthetic dye, was invented in , after which cloth and leather manufacturers replaced most of the natural plant-based dyes with synthetic dyes. These results helped researchers identify why cancers of the bladder had become so common among textile workers who worked with dyes.

With the development of mauve in , synthetic dyes began to be used instead of dyes based on plants in the dyeing of leather and cloth. By the end of the nineteenth century, rates of bladder cancer among these workers had increased dramatically, and the experiments using dogs helped clear up this oddity Steingraber One common mistake many writers make is to start by copying a passage directly from a source and then changing it: adding some words or deleting some words, replacing others with synonyms, altering sentence structures.

Use your own words and sentence structure. If you use any words from the original, put them in quotation marks.

Unlike a paraphrase, a summary does not present the details, and it is generally as brief as possible. Summaries may boil down an entire book or essay into a single sentence, or they may take a paragraph or more to present the main ideas.

Here, for example, is a summary of the original excerpt from Steingraber see p. Signal verbs. The language you use in a signal phrase can be neutral, like X says or according to Y. The example above referring to the textbook author uses the verb argues, suggesting that what she says is disputable or that the writer believes it is. Science writer Isaac McDougal questions whether.

For example: In other words, the data suggest that. Our theory challenges common assumptions about. Their hypothesis supposes. Verb tenses. Each documentation style has its own conventions regarding the verbs that are used in signal phrases. If, however, you mention the date when the source was written, the verb should be in the past tense.

Dowdall, Crawford, and Wechsler have observed that. But to discuss the implications of an experiment or conclusions that are generally agreed on, APA requires the use of the present tense: the findings of the study suggest, most researchers concur. Use the past tense, however, when you are focusing on the fact that the action took place in the past: Just before signing the Declaration of Independence, John Adams wrote to his wife.

Use the present tense, however, when citing research reports: Gillen provides the most detailed evidence. Statistics and facts. Most of the time, it will be clear that you are documenting only the statistic or fact.

When in doubt, provide documentation or ask your instructor for advice. The following practices will help you avoid plagiarizing. Like other sources, information from the web must be acknowledged. Students who plagiarize fail courses or might even be expelled from school. Documenting our sources not only helps establish our credibility as researchers and writers, but it also enables our readers to find our sources themselves if they wish to.

The Little Seagull Handbook provides guidelines on four documentation styles, each of which is commonly used in specific disciplines. Although the specific guidelines for the styles differ, they all require that you provide basic information about the authors, titles, and publication of your sources. MLA Style MLA style calls for 1 brief in-text documentation and 2 complete bibliographic information in a list of works cited at the end of your text.

The models and examples in this chapter draw on the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook, published by the Modern Language Association in For additional information, visit style. You have three options for citing a source in your text: quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing.

Variations on those examples follow. The examples illustrate the MLA style of using quotation marks around titles of short works and italicizing titles of long works. Do not write page or p. Do not use punctuation between the name and the page number s. Notice that in the example above, the parenthetical reference comes after the closing quotation marks but before the period at the end of the sentence. For a work by three or more authors, name the first author followed by et al.

The US government can be direct when it wants to be. LITERARY WORKS When referring to literary works that are available in many different editions, give the page numbers from the edition you are using, followed by information that will let readers of any edition locate the text you are citing.

Give the page and chapter number, separated by a semicolon. Give the part and the line numbers separated by periods. If a poem has only line numbers, use the word line s only in the first reference. If entries are arranged alphabetically, no page number is needed. Italicize the name of a legal case. Grokster, Ltd. Do not italicize the titles of laws, acts, or well-known historical documents such as the Declaration of Independence.

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